The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di, was the third emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1402 to 1424. He was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the dynasty.
In 1370, Zhu Di was granted the title of Prince of Yan. By 1380, he had relocated to Beiping (present-day Beijing) and was responsible for protecting the northeastern borderlands. In the 1380s and 1390s, he proved himself to be a skilled military leader, gaining popularity among soldiers and achieving success as a statesman. In 1399, he rebelled against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, and launched a civil war known as the Jingnan campaign. After three years of intense fighting, he emerged victorious and declared himself emperor in 1402.
After ascending the throne, the Yongle Emperor elevated Beiping to the status of a second capital, diminishing the importance of Nanjing. Construction of the new capital between 1407 and 1420 employed hundreds of thousands of workers. He also supervised the reconstruction of the Grand Canal, essential for supplying Beijing and the northern armies. The Emperor strongly supported both Confucianism and Buddhism and sponsored the compilation of the vast Yongle Encyclopedia, employing around two thousand scholars. He also ordered Neo-Confucian texts to be systematized and used as textbooks for training officials. The civil service examinations, held every three years, produced qualified candidates for government service. Unlike his father, he avoided frequent purges, resulting in longer ministerial tenures and a more professional, stable administration.
The Emperor made considerable efforts to reinforce the empire's hegemonic position in East Asia through an active foreign policy. Diplomatic missions and military expeditions were dispatched to regions both near and distant, including Manchuria, Korea, Japan, the Philippines, and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia. Maritime expeditions led by the eunuch admiral Zheng He extended even further, reaching the shores of Southeast Asia, India, Persia, and East Africa. The Mongols—including southeastern Uriankhai, eastern Mongols and western Oirats—remained the empire's greatest security threat, prompting the Ming court to alternately support and confront the various groups. The Emperor personally led five campaigns into Mongolia, and his decision to transfer the government from Nanjing to Beijing was driven largely by the need to closely monitor the unstable northern frontier. Although a skilled military leader, his wars were ultimately unsuccessful, as the campaign in Đại Việt lasted until the end of his reign and his Mongolian campaigns failed to secure China's northern border.
Zhu Di, the future Yongle Emperor, was born on 2 May 1360 as the fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang. At the time, Zhu Yuanzhang was based in Nanjing and was a prominent leader of the Red Turban Rebellion, an uprising in China against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The rebellion sought to restore Han Chinese rule after decades of Mongol domination following the Yuan conquest of the Song in 1279. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming dynasty and became the Hongwu Emperor.
Ming official records, and Zhu Di himself, stated that his mother was the Hongwu Emperor's primary wife and empress, Lady Ma. Other sources suggest that his real mother was a concubine with the title Consort Gong, who was either Mongolian (from the Khongirad tribe) or possibly Korean. Zhu Di attempted to present himself as the Hongwu Emperor's legitimate successor by declaring himself and the Hongwu Emperor's fifth son, Zhu Su, as the only sons of Empress Ma in the 1403 edition of the official Veritable Records of Taizu. This claim was questionable, as it was unlikely that the Hongwu Emperor would not name a son with the Empress as his successor during his lifetime. Therefore, in the later version of 1418, the eldest five sons—Zhu Biao, Zhu Shuang, Zhu Gang, Zhu Di, and Zhu Su—were all recognized as her children.
Zhu Di spent his childhood in Nanjing, where he and his siblings were raised with a strong emphasis on discipline and modesty. Among his siblings, he had a special fondness for his younger sister Princess Ningguo and his younger brothers Zhu Su and Zhu Fu. Zhu Su was only 15 months younger than Zhu Di, and they became close friends despite their contrasting personalities. While Zhu Di enjoyed activities such as archery and horseback riding, Zhu Su preferred studying literature and tending to plants.
The Hongwu Emperor took great care in the education of his sons, appointing leading scholars of the empire as their tutors. Initially, Song Lian was appointed as the teacher for the heir to the throne, and also gave lectures to the other princes. His successor, Kong Keren (孔克仁), who taught the Emperor's sons philosophy and ethics, had a significant influence on Zhu Di. His favorite subject was the history of the Han dynasty, particularly Emperors Gaozu and Wu of Han, but he often referenced examples from the life of Qin Shi Huang in his decrees as emperor.
In 1368, the Emperor designated his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as heir to the throne. On 22 April 1370, he granted princely titles to the next nine sons, from the second to the tenth. Zhu Di received the title of Prince of Yan, with his fief located in Beiping (present-day Beijing). During the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, Beiping served as the capital of China. After being conquered by the Ming dynasty in 1368, it became a crucial stronghold for the troops guarding the northern border and was also designated as the capital of Beiping Province.
At that time, Zhu Di came under the guidance of Hua Yunlong and Gao Xian, who became his principal mentors. Gao spent the next four to five years lecturing the prince on Confucian classics, history, agriculture, and irrigation. He also trained Zhu Di in poetry and prose writing, and instructed him in the principles of governance and the selection of subordinates. After Hua's death and Gao's dismissal, Fei Yu, Qiu Guang, Wang Wuban, and Zhu Fu took over Zhu Di's education. Despite receiving a comprehensive education from esteemed teachers, Zhu Di's true passion lay in military affairs rather than scholarly study and palace discussions.
In early 1376, Zhu Di married the daughter of the senior Ming general Xu Da, who had played a significant role in the founding of the dynasty. Zhu Di's bride, Lady Xu, was two years younger than him and was known for her intelligence, decisiveness, and energy. The couple's marriage was political in nature, strengthening ties between their families, but they gradually developed a deep affection for one another over the next 31 years. Their first son, Zhu Gaochi, was born in August 1378. The couple had two more sons, Zhu Gaoxu in 1380 and Zhu Gaosui in 1383.
A few weeks after his wedding, Zhu Di traveled to Fengyang (then known as Zhongdu, the Central Capital), where he spent seven months in military training alongside his elder brothers Zhu Shuang and Zhu Gang. Two years later, he returned to Fengyang with his younger brothers Zhu Su, Zhu Zhen, and Zhu Fu, remaining there for another two years. During this period, he trained in command and combat and learned military logistics, including the acquisition and transport of supplies. He developed organizational abilities that he later applied effectively in warfare. He also disguised himself as an ordinary soldier to experience the lives of common people, and later recalled his years in Fengyang as the happiest of his life.
In 1376, Li Wenzhong (李文忠), the nephew and adopted son of the Hongwu Emperor and the official responsible for northern defense, was tasked with preparing Zhu Di's palace in Beiping. Using former Yuan imperial palaces, he provided Zhu Di with a residence that was larger and more heavily fortified than those of his brothers, many of whom lived in converted temples or local government buildings. Li Wenzhong also strengthened the city's defenses, a decision that proved significant during the civil war when his son, Li Jinglong, failed to capture Beiping in 1399.