Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril ibn Mika'il (Persian: ابوطالبْ محمد طغرل بن میکائیل), better known as Tughril (طغرل / طغریل; also spelled Toghril / Tughrul), was a Turkoman chieftain, who founded the Seljuk Empire, ruling from 1037 to 1063.
Tughril united many Turkoman warriors of the Central Asian steppes into a confederacy of tribes and led them in conquest of Khorasan and eastern Persia. He would later establish the Seljuk Sultanate after conquering Persia and taking the Abbasid capital of Baghdad from the Buyids in 1055. Tughril relegated the Abbasid Caliphs to state figureheads and took command of the caliphate's armies in military offensives against the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimids in an effort to expand his empire's borders and unite the Islamic world.
After the deaths of Seljuk leaders such as Israil and Mikail, the Seljuks submitted to the authority of Tughril Bey and began expanding their territories under the leadership of his brother, Chaghri Beg. In 1037, Tughril was declared sultan by the prominent figures of the Seljuk dynasty, and a sermon (khutbah) was delivered in his name. Following the death of Mahmud of Ghazni and the accession of Sultan Masʽud, the Seljuks, under Tughril’s leadership, engaged in several phases of warfare with the Ghaznavids. As a result, the Seljuks emerged as a new power in the Middle East after their decisive victory in the Battle of Dandanqan in 1040, which brought an end to Ghaznavid rule in Greater Khorasan and surrounding regions. Subsequently, Tughril settled in Nishapur as his capital and, with the support of his brother and close allies, established his own state.
Following the Battle of Dandanaqan, Tughril, along with the Seljuk leadership, sent a letter to the Abbasid caliph al-Qa'im bi-Amrillah, requesting an official decree of authority, which was granted. Between the years 1040–1054, with the assistance of Ibrahim Inal, Tughril conquered large parts of Iranian territory, including the regions of Jibal and Iraq-i Ajam, and brought an end to the Buyid government in these areas. He captured the city of Ray, restored it, and declared it the capital. However, after capturing Isfahan, he moved the capital there. Later, Tughril brought Azerbaijan under his control and carried out military campaigns against Byzantium and other regions of Eastern Roman territories, further expanding the Seljuk realm.
In 1055, accepting an invitation from the Abbasid caliph to visit Baghdad, Tughril initiated a new phase in Seljuk–Abbasid relations. Between 1055–1061, he eliminated Buyid rule in Baghdad, captured Malik Rahim, and had sermons read in his name in those territories. After restoring Baghdad, Tughril arranged the marriage of Chaghri Beg’s daughter to the Abbasid caliph, thus strengthening ties with the caliphate. He subsequently seized the Jazira region. Later, after suppressing a revolt by his brother Ibrahim Inal and executing him, Tughril also defeated Arslan al-Basasiri, who had the backing of the Fatimid Caliphate. He married the caliph’s daughter despite opposition from the caliph himself—a union that was accompanied by numerous challenges. Ultimately, in 1063, Tughril died without leaving an heir and left behind a vast empire.
Tughril Beg was known as a devout figure and commissioned the construction of many mosques and madrasas. He was recognized for his adherence to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence and, with the assistance of his vizier Amid al-Mulk Kunduri, imposed restrictions on the activities of other Islamic sects. While some sources describe him as a just ruler who avoided unnecessary bloodshed, other accounts report oppressive conduct by him and his army.
Tughril’s legacy was the administrative model he created, which was composed of the Turkic political tradition, the region’s customary administrative principles, and the religious legitimacy derived from the Abbasid Caliphate. This model reshaped the institution of sultanate into a form of absolute rule endowed with extraordinary authority. This form of rule overshadowed the worldly power of the caliph, recognizing only his spiritual leadership. Consequently, the caliph was compelled to submit to Tughril’s demands. Before the advent of the Seljuks, Iran was divided between several warring local powers, such as the Buyids, Kakuyids and Ghaznavids. As a result, it suffered from continuous war and destruction. However, under Tughril peace and prosperity were brought to the country and to Mesopotamia, a transition that was further reinforced due to the Seljuks' assimilation to Iranian-Muslim culture.
"Tughril" was the Old Turkic word for a bird of prey, possibly the Crested goshawk. In early Turkic history and culture, starting from the Uyghur Khaganate and onwards, it was used as a personal name.
Tughril was born in c. 993, most likely in the Central Asian steppes, where nomadic Oghuz Turks were roaming to find pasture for livestock. After the death of his father Mikail, Tughril and his brother Chaghri were reportedly raised by their grandfather Seljuk (the eponymous founder of the Seljuks) in Jand. It was seemingly during this period that the Seljuk family converted to Islam, at least nominally. In the following decades, the Seljuks were employed as mercenaries under the warring factions of Transoxiana and Khwarazm, in exchange for pasture for their herds.
In the 1020s, Tughril and his other relatives were serving the Kara-Khanids of Bukhara. In 1026, the Kara-Khanids were driven out of Bukhara by the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Seljuk's son Arslan Isra'il fled to a place near Sarakhs, where he asked Mahmud for permission to settle in the area in return for military aid. Mahmud, however, had Arslan Isra'il put in prison, where the latter soon died. Meanwhile, Tughril and Chaghri remained loyal to their Kara-Khanid overlords, although there were disputes between them in 1029; in 1032, they fought alongside the Kara-Khanids at the Battle of Dabusiyya.
After the Kara-Khanid ruler Ali-Tegin's death, however, the Seljuks changed their allegiance to the ruler of Khwarazm, Harun, but were repelled by the Oghuz ruler Shah Malik in 1035. The Seljuks then went to the same place as Arslan Isra'il, and asked the son of Mahmud, Mas'ud I, for asylum. Mas'ud, however, considered the nomadic Turks to be dangerous and sent an army under his commander-in-chief Begtoghdi. The army was shortly defeated by the Seljuks, who forced Mas'ud to surrender Nasa, Farava and Dihistan in return for Seljuk recognition of Ghaznavid authority and protection of the region from other Turkic tribes.
In 1037, the Seljuks also forced the Ghaznavids to cede them Sarakhs, Abivard and Marw. The Seljuks then slowly began to subdue the cities of Khorasan, and, when they captured Nishapur, Tughril proclaimed himself Sultan of Khorasan.
The political and military history of the Seljuk Turks
The political and military history of the Seljuk dynasty began in the second half of the 4th century AH (late 9th and early 10th centuries CE) with Seljuk’s involvement in political and military conflicts that took place in the northeastern regions of the Caspian Sea and northern Transoxiana.
Following Seljuk, his sons—Israel, Musa Yabghu, and Mikail—as well as Mikail’s sons, Tughril Beg and Chaghri Beg, participated in the ongoing conflicts in the regions of Transoxiana and Khwarazm. They entered the service of various rulers, primarily the Samanids, in return for guarantees of access to pasturelands for their livestock and even resisted other Turkic groups. Toward the end of the Samanid period, some Turks initially assisted the Samanids in combating other Turks and defeated their enemies. However, they later departed from the Samanids and turned against them. The role of the Seljuk family and other Turks or Oghuz in this matter is debated; while some sources accuse the Seljuks, others exonerate them. After the fall of the Samanids, the Seljuks became subject to the Qarakhanids, continued their nomadic lifestyle under their service, and gradually consolidated their power. The Seljuk dynasty collaborated with the Qarakhanid ruler Ali Tigin and supported him in capturing Bukhara in 1020. Later, one of the Seljuks married Ali Tigin’s daughter and, through this marriage, gained a special status within Ali Tigin’s domain.