Taoism or Daoism ( , ) is a philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao (道). With a range of meanings and interpretations in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition, including forms of traditional medicine, meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics generally emphasize virtues of effortless action (Wu wei), naturalness, simplicity, and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility.
Taoism is treated as a distinct tradition with its own scriptures, priestly lineages, and ritual systems, but it has long been closely intertwined with Chinese folk religion, and the boundary between them is often fluid in practice.
The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period (c. 450 – c. 300 BCE), during which the epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi—widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism, Mohism, Confucianism, various Legalist theories, as well as the I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals.
Taoism is frequently discussed in comparison with Confucianism, since both traditions profoundly influenced Chinese thought. This combination of Taoism and Confucianism further influenced Buddhism upon its introduction to China, with long-running discourses and developments shared between Taoists and Buddhists eventually evolving into what scholars now call indigenous Chinese Buddhism.This mutual co-existence led to the emergence of Three Teachings discourse by the 6th century CE, which examined how the three traditions could be integrated harmoniously in Chinese society.
Many Taoist denominations recognize deities, often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and xian ("immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist".
The title daoshi ("Taoist master") is traditionally reserved for ordained clergy within Taoist organizations, who distinguish their formal traditions from those of Chinese folk religion. Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as a theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty, attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy.
Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau. It is considered a major religion in Taiwan, and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms, both those keeping to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements.
"Tao" and "Dao" are different romanized spellings of the same Chinese word: 道.
"Tao" is the romanized spelling in the Wade–Giles system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings.
"Dao" is the romanized spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s and the Library of Congress in 2000, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles romanization in academic sources.
The Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道 is /tau̯˥˨/. Neither an English pronunciation like /daʊ/ (an English pronunciation of "Dao") nor an English pronunciation like /tʰaʊ/ (an English pronunciation of "Tao") is the same as the Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道, whose initial consonant is neither voiced nor aspirated.
One authority calls the pronunciation with a ⟨t⟩ as in "tie" (with a /tʰ/) to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade–Giles system", which misled most readers. Standard Chinese phonology does not have the same sound inventory as English phonology; the Wade–Giles romanization system provides spellings in the Latin alphabet, but they are not meant to indicate an exact English pronunciation in the same way as though they were English words.
Classification as philosophy and religion
The English word Taoism is often used to translate two distinct terms in Chinese:
Daojia (道家; dàojiā; “School/Tradition of the Dao”) is a Han-dynasty label used to classify teachings and texts associated with the dao ("the Way"). The expression daojia is traced to the early Han historian Sima Tan (d. 110 BCE), where it appears as part of a scheme for organizing “six schools”: Yin-Yang, Confucian, Mohist, Legalist, School of Names, and Taoist. The term is commonly applied, particularly in Western scholarship, with reference to the early Chinese philosophical texts Tao Te Ching (also called the Laozi) and the Zhuangzi, as well as later related philosophical developments such as Xuanxue ("Neo-Daoism").
Daojiao (道教; dàojiào; “Teachings of the Dao,” often rendered “Taoism” or "Daoism" in the sense of an organized religion). The term was coined by Lu Xiujing (406–477), a key figure in the early Lingbao movement and architect of the early Taoist tradition, in order to distinguish Taoism from Buddhism. In scholarship, it is often interpreted as the Taoist "religion proper", referring to later organized Taoist schools, institutional structures (such as temples and priesthoods), and religious practices and rituals. The first instance of Taoism as a proper religious community is generally traced back to the Way of the Celestial Masters tradition founded in 142 CE.
Early scholarship on Taoism classified these terms as Philosophical Taoism and Religious Taoism, respectively. This distinction, traced to the Protestant missionary James Legge (1815-1897), remains present in many non-specialist texts such as world religion textbooks. However, Taoist scholars themselves have increasingly moved away from this classification, with Komjathy calling it "wholly inaccurate and untenable." Komjathy notes even early "classical Taoism" already consisted of several characteristic features of religion, such as a cosmology centered on the Dao, specific practices like meditation, and aims of a mystical union. Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements.
Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology, is traditionally used to translate daoshi (道士; 'master of the Tao'), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community.