The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: La guerra civil española) was fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans and the Nationalist rebels. Republicans loyal to the left-leaning Popular Front government of the Second Spanish Republic included socialists, anarchists, communists, and separatists, supported by the Soviet Union. The opposing Nationalists were an alliance of fascist Falangists, monarchists, conservatives, and traditionalists, supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Initially led by a military junta, until General Francisco Franco was appointed supreme leader on 1 October 1936 of what he called the Spanish State. Due to the international political climate at the time, the war was variously viewed as class struggle, religious struggle, or struggle between republican democracy and dictatorship, revolution and counterrevolution, or between fascism and communism. The Nationalists won the war in early 1939, and ruled Spain until Franco's death in November 1975.
The war began after the partial failure of the coup d'état of July 1936 against the Popular Front government by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces. The Nationalist faction consisted of right-wing groups, including the Christian traditionalist party CEDA, monarchists, including both the opposing Alfonsists and the religious conservative Carlists, and the Falange Española de las JONS, a fascist political party. However, rebelling units in almost all important cities did not gain control, leaving Spain militarily and politically divided. The rebellion was countered by arming left-wing social movements and parties, and formation of militias which led to rapid socioeconomic and political transformation in the Republican zone, referred to as the Spanish Revolution. The Nationalist forces received munitions, soldiers, and air support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, while the Republican government received support from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States, continued to recognise the Republican government, but followed official policies of non-intervention. Despite this, tens of thousands of citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in the conflict, mostly in the pro-Republican International Brigades.
Franco gradually emerged as the primary leader of the Nationalist side, becoming the dictator of the Spanish State by 1937 and co-opting Falangism. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturing most of Spain's northern coastline in 1937 and besieging Madrid. After much of Catalonia was captured in 1938 and 1939, and Madrid was cut off from Barcelona, the Republican military position became hopeless. On 5 March 1939, in response to allegedly increasing communist dominance of the Republican government and the deteriorating military situation, Colonel Segismundo Casado led a military coup against the Republican government, intending to seek peace with the Nationalists. These peace overtures, however, were rejected by Franco. Following internal conflict between Republican factions in Madrid in the same month, Franco entered the capital and declared victory on 1 April 1939. Hundreds of thousands of those associated with the Republicans fled Spain, mostly to refugee camps in southern France; many of those who stayed were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists.
The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired worldwide, and for the many atrocities that occurred. Organised purges occurred in territory captured by Franco's forces to consolidate power. Mass executions took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, with the participation of local authorities varying by location.
First Republic and restoration
In 1868, popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II. In 1873, Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy abdicated, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed. The First Republic was marred with political instability and conflicts, and was quickly overthrown by General Arsenio Martínez Campos in December 1874, after which the monarchy was restored in the figure of Alfonso XII, Isabella's son.
After the restoration, Carlists and anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy. Alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped to bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia. Conscription was a controversial policy that was eventually implemented by the government of Spain. As evidenced by the Tragic Week in 1909, resentment and resistance continued well into the 20th century.
Spain was neutral in World War I. Following the war, wide swathes of Spanish society, including the armed forces, united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government in Madrid, but these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. Popular perception of communism as a major threat significantly increased during this period.
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
In 1923, another military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power, transitioning Spain to government by military dictatorship. Support for the Rivera regime gradually faded, and he resigned in January 1930. He was replaced by General Dámaso Berenguer, who was in turn himself replaced by Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar-Cabañas; both men continued a policy of rule by decree.
There was little support for the monarchy in the major cities. Consequently, King Alfonso XIII of Spain, relenting to popular pressure for a greater voice, called municipal elections for 12 April 1931. Left-wing entities such as the Socialists and Liberal Republicans won almost all the provincial capitals and, following the resignation of the government of Aznar-Cabañas, Alfonso XIII fled the country. The Second Spanish Republic was formed and remained in place for five years until the Spanish Civil War commenced.
The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became the provisional government, with Alcalá-Zamora himself as president and head of state. The republic had broad support from all segments of society.
However, according to José Ángel Sánchez Asiaín, the first plans of a counter-revolution against the Republic were discussed on the day when it was proclaimed, when representatives of monarchist circles, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the future leader of the Falange, and José Calvo Sotelo, one of the future leaders of the monarchist party Spanish Renovation, "met to lay down the financial foundations for subverting the Republic." An immediate action did not follow, but by March 1934 the conspirators would convince Benito Mussolini, the leader of Fascist Italy, to agree to aid a future coup.
In May 1931, an incident in which a taxi driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti-clerical violence throughout Madrid and the south-west regions of the country. The slow response on the part of the government disillusioned the right. In June and July, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) called several strikes, leading to a violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guard, and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the Spanish Army against the CNT in Seville. This led many workers to believe the Second Spanish Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy, and the CNT announced its intention of overthrowing it by starting a revolution.
Constituent Cortes and left-wing government (1931–1933)
Elections in June 1931 returned to office a large majority of Republicans and Socialists. With the onset of the Great Depression, the government tried to assist rural areas of Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and redistributing land tenure to farm workers. Newly established labour arbitration boards regulated salaries, contracts, and working hours, but were more favourable to workers than employers. Class struggle intensified as landowners turned to counterrevolutionary organisations and local oligarchs to maintain control. Strikes, workplace theft, arson, robbery and assaults on shops, strikebreakers, employers, and machines became increasingly common.