The Spanish Armada (often known as Invincible Armada, or the Enterprise of England, Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, lit. 'Great and Most Fortunate Navy') was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, and was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The Armada was commanded by Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat appointed by Philip II of Spain. His orders were to sail up the English Channel, join with the army of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma in Flanders, and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I. Its purpose was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end English support for the Dutch Republic in the north and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas.
The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth. Faster and more manoeuvrable than the larger Spanish galleons, its ships were able to attack the armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia first to enter Plymouth Sound and attack the English fleet before it could leave harbour and then to anchor in the Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight, but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when the wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea. Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland. Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English.
The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the "English Armada", and sometimes called the "counter-armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596, 1597, and 1601, but these likewise ended in failure.
The word armada is from Spanish: armada, which is cognate with English army. It is originally derived from Latin: armātae, the past participle of armāre, 'to arm', used in Romance languages as a noun for armed force, army, navy, fleet. Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy.
England had been strategically in alliance with Spain for many decades prior to England and Spain entering into war. In the mid to late 15th century, France under Louis XI was the strongest power in western Europe. England still had possessions in what today is called Northern France, and Spain was under constant threat. Henry VII of England therefore formed a strategic relationship with Ferdinand II, of Spain. Whilst the threat from France remained, England and Spain enjoyed many decades of peace which included a number of strategic marriages to retain the alliance. There were many causes of jealousy between the two royal houses over the years, but the French Wars of Religion were the ultimate cause of the alliance breaking between Philip II of Spain and Elizabeth I, and this led to war between the two countries.
By the mid sixteenth century Habsburg Spain under Philip II was a dominant political and military power in Europe, with a global empire which became the source of her wealth. It championed the Catholic cause and its global possessions stretched from Europe, the Americas and to the Philippines. This was expanded further in 1580 when Philip gained control of Portugal thus forming the Iberian Union. Philip became the first monarch who ruled over an empire upon which the sun did not set, and he did so from his chambers in the Escorial Palace by means of written communication.
In comparison, England was only a minor European power with no empire and had little influence overseas. During Henry VIII's reign, England had gone to war three times against France in alliance with Spain. The last of these conflicts was the Sieges of Boulogne (1544–1546).
Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Over time, England became increasingly aligned with the Protestant reformation taking place in Europe, especially during the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI but Edward died childless, and his Catholic half-sister Mary ascended the throne in 1553. Three years later Mary married Philip II, becoming queen consort of Spain. Mary returned England to the Catholic Church; during her reign more than 260 English Protestants were burned at the stake, earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary".
In 1557, Philip persuaded Mary to enter into a disastrous war against France. England landed forces in the Low Countries and with the failing support of Spain, won the Battle of St. Quentin. Though this brought victory for Spain, England had neglected her defences in France, and France took Calais in 1558. Thus England lost her last possession in France, which she had held for over 200 years. This was undoubtedly a huge blow to Mary's prestige, who is reported as stating "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Calais' lying in my heart." England's wealth further suffered, not just from the cost of the war, but also from the reduced revenues from alum and the Antwerp cloth trade, caused by the loss of the port. The Kingdom of Spain had strengthened its hold on the Low Countries, weakening France with no cost to itself, but at great cost to England. Just before Mary's death, Philip and Mary's half-sister Elizabeth looked to come to an alliance and settlement between England and Spain, and there is evidence even marriage between Philip and Elizabeth was explored, but the question of faith, and the unequal relationship between the two Kingdoms made this extremely unlikely. Spain and England had remained in an alliance that had lasted for over 70 years.
Mary died in 1558, succeeded by her half-sister as Elizabeth I, a Protestant. Elizabeth re-implemented Edward's reforms. Also, in the eyes of the Catholic Church, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate. Philip therefore deemed Elizabeth a heretic and usurper. Philip supported plots to have Elizabeth overthrown in favour of her Catholic cousin and heir presumptive, Mary, Queen of Scots. These plans were thwarted in 1566–1567, when Mary was forced to abdicate the crown of Scotland in favour of her son James VI, and then was imprisoned by Elizabeth.
Friction between England and Spain continued. English smugglers traded in Spanish colonies and English privateers seized Spanish ships. Elizabeth even established an alliance with Morocco. In 1579, a small fleet including three Spanish ships was sent to Ireland to support the Second Desmond Rebellion against English rule. These were followed by further ships in 1580. The rebellion failed with the Siege of Smerwick, after which five to six hundred surrendering Spanish, Irish and Papal troops were massacred by English forces.
The first documented proposal for the Enterprise of England was made in August 1583. The Marquis of Santa Cruz, flushed with pride of his victory in the Azores, suggested to Philip II that Spain take advantage of the victory to attack England. In 1585, the Anglo-Spanish War began. English privateers attacked Spanish fishing boats on the Grand Banks and raided Spanish colonies, and England sent troops to support the Dutch revolt against Spain. Elizabeth finally had Mary executed in February 1587, due to constant plots in Mary's name.
In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England to overthrow Elizabeth, or if the armada was not entirely successful, at least obtain freedom of worship for English Catholics and indemnity for English attacks.