Sayyid (Arabic: سَيِّد, romanized: Sayyid) is an honorific title used by Muslims to denote descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, particularly those descended through his daughter Fatima and Ali's sons Hasan and Husayn. Sayyids are found throughout the Muslim world and their lineages vary, with many tracing their ancestry to different descendants of Muhammad. However, Musawi Sayyids, who trace their lineage to the seventh Shia Imam Musa al-Kazim, are among the most numerous and widespread, due to the large number of children he had. Sayyids are often identified by genealogical records and family trees tracing their ancestry back to the Prophet Muhammad.
The title Syed (Sayyid/Sayed) gains special significance in Islam through the hadith in which Muhammad said: "Al-Hasan and Al-Husayn are the two masters (Syeds) of the youth of Paradise" (الحسنُ والحسينُ سيِّدا شبابِ أهلِ الجنَّةِ). This hadith is recorded in Sahih al-Tirmidhi and other collections. Muhammad's use of the term "Syed" for his grandsons elevated the honorific, which later became widely used for the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her son Husayn ibn Ali, particularly through Ali al-Sajjad, symbolizing noble lineage and honored status.
A few Arabic language experts state that "Sayyid" has its roots in the word al-asad الأسد, meaning "lion", probably because of the qualities of valor and leadership. The word is derived from the verb sāda, meaning to rule. The title seyyed/sayyid/syed/sayyad/saeed/said existed before Islam, however not in light of a specific descent, but as a meritocratic sign of respect.
Hans Wehr's Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines seyyid as a translation for master, chief, sovereign, or lord. It also denotes someone respected and of high status.
In the Arab world, sayyid is the equivalent of the English word "liege lord" or "master".
The title Syed (Sayyid/Sayed) is a genealogical honorific for Muhammad's descendants whose formal use emerged in the early Islamic period shortly after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, becoming established during the 7th century through the descendants of Husayn ibn Ali, particularly through Ali al-Sajjad. A later title, Sharif, often linked to the genealogy of Hasan ibn Ali, developed stronger political connotations from around the 10th century onward under the Fatimid Caliphate, particularly in the context of the Sharifate of Mecca.
The foundation of the title Sayyid is unclear. In fact the title Sayyid as a unified reference for descendants of Muhammad did not exist, according to Morimoto Kazuo, until the Mongol conquests. This can be substantiated by historic records about Abdul Qadir Gilani and Baha' al-Din Naqshband, who did not refer to themselves with any title, despite their lineages to Muhammad. Sometimes the ruling community of a nation took this title to portray themselves as respected and honored, though they are not actually the descendants of Muhammad. This gives reasons to think that this title is founded later on. Morimoto refers to Mominov, who describes that the emergence of a community leader during the Mongol era (Ilkhanate) gave rise to the prominence of the title Sayyid. This leader is most probably the Sunni Shafi'ite scholar Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, who lived in this time, being known as a saint credited with the honorific titles "Amir-e-Kabir" (English: "Grand Prince") and "Ali-e-Sani" (English: "Second Ali"). Hamadani's religious legacy in Kashmir as well as his headquarter (Persian: Khanqah) the Khanqa-e-Mola became under the control of the Grand Sayyid Hazrat Ishaan. Hazrat Ishaan's descendants are buried in Hamadani's headquarters, on which occasion it is known as the Ziyarat Naqshband Sahab today.
However, in Sunni Islam as practiced in the Ottoman and Mughal Empire, a person descending from Muhammad (either maternally or paternally) can only claim the title of Sayyid meritocratically by passing audits, whereupon exclusive rights, like paying lesser taxes, will be granted. These are mostly based on the claimant's demonstrated knowledge of the Quran and piousness (Arabic: Taqwa) under the assessment of a Naqib al-Ashraf, also known as a Mir in Persian-speaking countries. Notable examples of such a Naqib (plural: "Nuqaba") or Mirs (plural: "Miran"), were Hazrat Ishaan in the Mughal Empire and his descendant Sayyid Mir Fazlullah Agha in Royal Afghanistan.
The Sayyid families in Iraq are so numerous that there are books written especially to list the families and connect their trees. These families include: the Al-Talqani, Al-Habbobi, Al-Yassiri, Al-Aqiqi, Al-Nasrullah, Al-Wahab, Al-Hashimi, Al-Quraishi, Al-Mar'ashi, Al-Witri, Al-Zaidi, Al-A'araji, Al-Baka, Al-Hasani, Al-Hussaini, Al-Shahristani, Al-Qazwini Al-Qadri, Tabatabaei, Al-Alawi, Al-Ghawalib (Al-Ghalibi), Al-Musawi, Al-Awadi (not to be confused with the Al-Awadhi Huwala family), and many others.
Sayyids (Persian: سید, romanized: Seyyed) are found in vast numbers in Iran. The Chief of "National Organization for Civil Registration" of Iran declared that more than 6 millions of Iranians are Sayyid. The majority of Sayyids migrated to Iran from Arab lands predominantly in the 15th to 17th centuries during the Safavid era. The Safavids transformed the religious landscape of Iran by imposing Twelver Shi'ism on the populace. Since most of the population embraced Sunni Islam, and an educated version of Shiism was scarce in Iran at the time, Ismail imported a new group of Shia Ulama who predominantly were Sayyids from traditional Shiite centers of the Arabic-speaking lands, such as Jabal Amil (of southern Lebanon), Syria, Bahrain, and southern Iraq in order to create a state clergy. The Safavids offered them land and money in return for loyalty.
These scholars taught Twelver Shi'ism, made it accessible to the population, and energetically encouraged conversion to Shi'ism. During the reign of Shah Abbas the Great, the Safavids also imported to Iran more Arab Shias, predominantly Sayyids, built religious institutions for them, including many Madrasas (religious schools), and successfully persuaded them to participate in the government, which they had shunned in the past (following the Hidden imam doctrine). Common Sayyid family surnames in Iran are Husseini, Mousavi, Kazemi, Razavi, Eshtehardian, Tabatabaei, Hashemi, Hassani, al-Ja'fari, Emami, Arabi, Ahmadi, Zaidi, Imamzadeh, Sherazi, Kirmani, Shahidi, and Mahdavi.
In Oman, Sayyid is used solely as a royal title and not as a means of indicating descent from Muhammad. It is used by members of the ruling Al Bu Said family who are not descended from Muhammad but instead from the Azd, a Qahtanite tribe. All male line descendants of Sultan Ahmad bin Said, the first ruler of Oman from the Al Bu Said dynasty, are able to use the title of Sayyid or Sayyida. Male line descendants of Sultan Turki bin Said are also able to use the style of His/Her Highness. The Sayyid title in Oman is some times translated as Prince.
In Yemen the Sayyids are more generally known as sadah; they are also referred to as Hashemites. In terms of religious practice they are Sunni, Shia, and Sufi. Sayyid families in Yemen include the Rassids, the Qasimids, the Mutawakkilites, the Hamideddins, some Al-Zaidi of Marib, Sanaa, and Saada, the Ba 'Alawi sadah families in Hadhramaut, Mufadhal of Sanaa, Al-Shammam of Saada, the Sufyan of Juban, and the Al-Jaylani of Juban.
In South Asia, Sayyids are mostly credited for preaching and consolidating the religion of Islam. They are predominantly descendants of leading saints of Sunni Islam that migrated from Persia to preach Islam in Islamic Theology.
In the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, the Sayyid have been recognized as an ethnic group. On March 15, 2019, President Ashraf Ghani decreed the inclusion of the Sadat tribe in the electronically registered national identity documents (Tadhkira). The majority of Sayyids live in Balkh and Kunduz in the north, as well as in Nangarhar in the east. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims[citation needed], although there are some, including in Bamyan Province, who belong to Shia Islam. These individuals are often referred to as Sadat (from Arabic: سادات, the plural of Sayyid), a term traditionally used to denote the descendants of Hasan and Hussein, the first Shia martyrs and sons of Ali, who are grandsons of Muhammad, particularly in the northern Hejaz region and British India.