The Grand Principality of Moscow, before 1389 the Principality of Moscow, also known by the exonym Muscovy, was a late medieval Russian monarchy. Its capital was the city of Moscow. Originally established as an appanage principality in the 13th century, Moscow became the leading Russian principality and was transformed into a centralized Russian state in the late 15th century, laying the groundwork for Tsarist Russia.
Moscow became a separate principality when Daniel (r. 1263–1303), the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, received the city and surrounding area as an appanage. By the end of the 13th century, Moscow had become one of the leading principalities within the Grand Principality of Vladimir, alongside Tver. A struggle between the princes of Moscow and Tver began after Mikhail of Tver became grand prince in 1304. Yury (r. 1303–1325) contested the title and was later made grand prince in 1318 by the khan of the Golden Horde, who held suzerainty over the princes. However, Yury would lose the title four years later.
Ivan I (r. 1325–1340) regained the title of grand prince and was able to collect tribute for the khan from other Russian princes, which increased Moscow's wealth. The seat of the Russian Orthodox Church was also moved from Vladimir to Moscow, establishing it as the spiritual center of Russian Orthodoxy. Ivan I defeated Tver and secured the grand princely title for his sons, Simeon (r. 1340–1353) and Ivan II (r. 1353–1359). After Ivan II's death, the title was temporarily lost until it was regained by Dmitry (r. 1359–1389), who permanently united the thrones of Vladimir and Moscow by the end of his reign. He also inflicted a milestone defeat on the Tatars in 1380, which greatly increased Moscow's prestige.
As the Golden Horde declined, its hegemony was increasingly challenged. Vasily I (r. 1389–1425) greatly expanded the size of his domain, but was ultimately forced to resume paying tribute due to Tatar raids. Vasily II (r. 1425–1462) consolidated his control of Moscow after a civil war and his reign saw the Russian Church declare autocephaly in 1448. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 confirmed the nascent independence of the Russian Church. Ivan III (r. 1462–1505) absorbed nearly all of the Russian states and laid the foundations for a centralized state. The formal annexation of Novgorod in 1478 led him to eventually adopt the title of sovereign of all Russia. The reign of Ivan III marks the end of the appanage period and the beginning of a new period in Russian history known as Muscovite Russia. His defeat of the Tatars in 1480 also traditionally marks the end of Tatar suzerainty. Vasily III (r. 1505–1533) completed the annexation of the remaining appanages. His son, Ivan IV (r. 1533–1584), was crowned as the first Russian tsar in 1547, thereby formally establishing the Tsardom of Russia.
The English names Moscow and Muscovy, for the city, the principality, and the river, are derived from post-classical Latin Moscovia, Muscovia, and ultimately from the Old Russian fully vocalized accusative form Московь, Moskov'. Moscow is first mentioned under the year 1147 in the locative case (na Moskvě). The modern Russian form, Moskva, first appears in the 14th century.
The oldest endonyms used in documents were Rus (Russian: Русь) and Russkaya zemlya (Russian: Русская земля, lit. 'Russian land'). The 14th-century Zadonshchina, which belongs to the Kulikovo cycle of works, stresses the unity of the Russian princes and describes the principalities of Moscow, Novgorod, and others as being part of the "Russian land". A new form of the name became common by the 15th century; the vernacular Rus was transformed into Ros(s)iya or Rus(s)iya, and borrowed from Greek: Ρωσία, romanized: Rosía, or Latin: Russia. Following the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the name Rosiya (Росия), derived from the Byzantine term and initially used in ecclesiastical circles, began appearing in the official titles of secular rulers. In the 1480s, the scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev referred to Russia as Rosia (Росиа). Medovartsev also mentioned the scepter "of Russian lordship" (Росийскаго господства, Rosiyskago gospodstva).
The title of knyaz (prince) was originally used in Kievan Rus', and as other principalities emerged, the senior ruler later became known as the veliky knyaz (grand prince). In the 14th century, the grand princes of Moscow began to style themselves as the rulers of all Russia. The title of grand prince also grew from grew from little more than a literary embellishment to one with clear legal overtones, especially as the ruler of Moscow pursued a policy of centralization. During his consolidation of territories, Ivan III adopted the title of sovereign (gosudar) of all Russia. After rejecting Mongol suzerainty, he also styled himself as autocrat (samoderzhets). In his foreign correspondence, he adopted the title of tsar and rejected the offer of kingship by the Holy Roman Emperor; however, it would not be until 1547 that the title of tsar became official with the coronation of his grandson, Ivan IV. Ivan III also laid claim to the legacy of Kievan Rus', which led to conflicts with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. From the 16th century, the Russian state was also known in Western Europe as Muscovy as a result of Polish–Lithuanian influence; the use of both names persisted until the early 18th century.
Other formal names used in historiography for the grand principality following its merger with Vladimir include the Grand Principality of All Russia, the Grand Principality of Great Russia, the Grand Principality of Moscow, Vladimir and All Rus, and the Grand Principality of Vladimir-Moscow or the Grand Principality of Moscow-Vladimir.
Moscow is first mentioned in chronicles under the year 1147, as part of the principality of Rostov-Suzdal. The importance of Moscow greatly increased during the second half of the 12th century, and it was converted into a fortified gorod (stronghold) in the 1150s. On the death of Vsevolod III in 1212, Moscow appears to have been passed to his son Yury, who succeeded his father as the grand prince of Vladimir. During the Mongol invasions of 1237–1238, Moscow was sacked following the destruction of Ryazan. The city is not mentioned again until the late 13th century.
The first prince of Moscow was Daniel (r. 1263–1303), the youngest son of Aleksandr Nevsky, and he was given Moscow as an otchina, where he established a local branch of Rurikid princes. Until 1271, the principality was ruled by the governors of Daniel's uncle Yaroslav. Daniel himself is first mentioned under the year 1282 as taking part in a feudal war between his two older brothers. The 16th-century Book of Royal Degrees says that Daniel was given Moscow on his father's death in 1263. The size of the original territory of the Moscow principality is not known, but it likely encompassed the basin of the upper Moskva River, stretching approximately between the eastern influx of the Gzhelka and the western influx of the Ruza. The northeast of the territory consisted of the basin of the upper Klyazma.
By the turn of the century, Moscow was one of the leading principalities within the Grand Principality of Vladimir. However, relations between the Russian princes remained tense after Andrey of Gorodets became the grand prince in 1293. As a result, Toqta, the khan of the Golden Horde, convened a congress of the princes in Pereyaslavl in 1297, at which the traditional succession principle of lestvitsa was reaffirmed. Daniel defeated Ryazan in 1301, after which Kolomna and Serpukhov were incorporated into the Moscow principality. Pereyaslavl was also temporarily annexed to Moscow, and after Daniel's death, his sons seized Mozhaysk in 1304. At this point, the territory of the principality had increased almost three-fold and included the entire Moskva River along with its tributaries, allowing Moscow to become self-sufficient. Its southern border included a large stretch of the Oka, from Serpukhov to the east of Kolomna, which gave it some protection from Tatar incursions. To the east, there was a dense forest zone which functioned as a natural barrier. Moscow also had access to the northern areas of Ryazan and direct access to Vladimir. It was also provided with an extensive river network that facilitated trade.