Demetrius Zvonimir (Croatian: Dmitar Zvonimir, pronounced [dmîtar zʋônimiːr]; Old Church Slavic: ⰸⱏⰲⱏⱀⰻⰿⰻⱃⱏ; died 1089) was a King of Croatia and Dalmatia from 1075 or 1076 until his death in 1089. Prior to that, Zvonimir also served as Ban of Croatia (1064/1070–1074). His native name was Zvonimir, but adopted the forename Demetrius at his coronation.
He first served as ban in the service of King Peter Krešimir IV. Afterwards, Peter Krešimir IV appointed him duke and declared him as his heir. In 1075 or 1076, Demetrius Zvonimir succeeded to the Croatian throne through papal diplomacy. His reign is characterized as relatively peaceful, with no extensive war campaigns, focused instead on Croatia's economic and cultural development. He inherited the Croatian state at its height and ruled from the city of Knin. Medieval legends allege his assassination, but his death and succession are subjects of controversy in historiography. His reign was followed by a period of anarchy, which ended with the ascension of the Hungarian Árpád dynasty and the creation of a union with Hungary.
Zvonimir's exact origin and background are uncertain. It is believed that he was a member of the native Trpimirović dynasty, and some historians have proposed that he is a descendant of Svetoslav Suronja's son Stjepan Svetoslavić which also allowed for the thesis that he began his career as Ban of Slavonia. Others rejected his Trpimirović descent and argued he was a member of some other prominent Croatian noble family possibly from Sidraga županija, but his early marriage to Árpád's princes shows he must have been of some extraordinary lineage. The historical sources also mention his magistro ("teacher") Scestaki (Šestak), and uncle Strezata (Streza) to whom he allowed tax collection in Mosor and from Solin to Bijaći.
During the reign of King Peter Krešimir IV, his relative also through the Orseoli family of Venice, older generation of historians conjectured that Zvonimir initially administered Slavonia, specifically the land between the rivers Drava and Sava, with the title of ban. The term "Slavonia" (Latin: Sclavonia) at the time referred to both modern day Slavonia and North-West Croatia. However, there's lack of historical evidence that Zvonimir ever held the title of Ban of Slavonia, or ruled over the region.
The neighboring Holy Roman Empire under Henry IV invaded Hungary in 1063 to restore Solomon, husband of his sister, to the Hungarian throne. Hungary was then ruled by Solomon's uncle Béla I, whose third daughter Helen was engaged to Zvonimir. According to Chronicon Pictum, Croatia was also attacked around 1063 by the Carantanian army of Ulric I, who occupied a part of Kvarner and the eastern coast of Istria, the "March of Dalmatia". Since the Croatian king was preoccupied with rebellion in Dalmatia, also due to the prohibition of Slavic liturgy, Zvonimir was compelled to seek protection from then King Solomon instead. Géza I and Solomon helped Zvonimir in restoring authority between 1064 and 1067 in the "March of Dalmatia". After they jointly repelled the Carantanians from Croatia, Zvonimir sent many gold, silver and other valuables to Solomon and Géza I as a sign of gratitude. Shortly afterwards in 1070 Zvonimir is first mentioned as a Ban of Croatia in three charters from Zadar, succeeding Ban Gojčo. Croatian charters at the time were issued in the names of both King Peter Krešimir and Ban Zvonimir.
In March 1074, Normans from southern Italy, led by Count Amico of Giovinazzo, invaded Dalmatia on the invitation of Dalmatian cities and Byzantium. They occupied the cities of Split, Trogir, Biograd na Moru and Zadar, but also managed to capture a certain Croatian king whose name is not mentioned, but certainly meant King Peter Krešimir, who died by November 1074. Norman crisis lasted until February 1075, when Venice expelled Amico and his forces from Dalmatia. Zvonimir probably helped Venice in the process. Although the Venetians freed Dalmatia and parts of Croatia previously occupied by the Normans, with the doge Domenico Selvo even self-titling himself as the doge of Venice, Dalmatia and Croatia (later only of Dalmatia), the Venetians with their close contacts with the Byzantium and Holy Roman Empire were not favourable to the Holy See. In such events the Holy See and Zvonimir came into contact with mutual interest.
Meanwhile, another contender for the throne, Stephen II Trpimirović, who had also been the Duke of Croatia until 1066 under King Petar Krešimir, relinquished his claim and relocated later to the Church of St. Stephen beneath the pines in the vicinity of Split, where he was to live a secluded life. It seems that Zvonimir was chosen as an heir to the throne already during Petar Krešimir's late life.
Zvonimir was crowned with regalia - crown, scepter, sword and flag - in October 1075 or 1076 in the Basilica of Saint Peter and Moses (known today as the Hollow Church) at Salona (today's Solin, Croatia), by Gebizon a representative of Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085). There's a dispute between historians whether he was crowned in 1075 or 1076 due to some dating uncertainties in the coronation charter. The day itself is not mentioned, however it is argued to be 8 or 9 October as on 9 October is St. Demetrius feast day whose name Zvonimir took at the coronation.
He was granted the royal title from the Pope after pledging "Peter's Pence", thus becoming a vassal to the Holy See. During this occasion, he promised defence and care of the churches and monks, poor and orphans, prosecute unlawful marriages between cousins, establish lawful marriages with a ring and priest blessing, and defend such marriages from depravity, also oppose trade of humans. Zvonimir took an oath of fealty to the Pope, promising to support the implementation of the Church reforms in Croatia. He also gave the Benedictine monastery of St. Gregory in Vrana (with two golden crowns with gems, probably being the previous Croatian crowns received by Byzantines) to the Holy See, both as a sign of loyalty and as accommodation for papal legates visiting Croatia. The title of Zvonimir continued to be "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" (Latin: Rex Chroatie atque Dalmatie), while his name and title in Croatian, as found on the Baška tablet, was "Zvonimir, kral hrvatski" (English: Zvonimir, Croatian king), in Glagolitic script zvъnъmirъ, kralъ xrъvatъskъ.
Zvonimir's coronation signified the end of political and religious relations between Croatia and Byzantine Empire, but also the end of complete independence because the kingdom became a vassal of the Holy See. Following the coronation, the papal legates summoned a church council in Split, which reiterated the king on the use of Slavic in liturgy and the condemnation of the Glagolitic or Cyrillic alphabet, which the council of 1060 had branded as heresy. The king instituted the Gregorian reform; he also promised the eventual abolition of slavery, but with little success (see Supetar cartulary). He maintained authority over Dalmatia, which could be felt as far as the distant town of Osor on the island of Cres, where he is referenced in a 1082 lauda.
Demetrius Zvonimir sought to gain firmer control of his kingdom by ousting various local nobles (hereditary provincial leaders and landlords) from local administration and replacing them with his own supporters, court nobles and, reflecting his close papal ties, high clerics. The provincial nobles were governing their provinces (županije) with a significant level of internal independence. In 1080, he bethrothed his daughter Claudia to the noble Vniha of the Lapčani tribe, to whom he also granted the county (županija) of Karin in Dalmatia as a dowry.
Around 1079, tensions arose between Croatia and the neighboring Holy Roman Empire, whose duke Vecelin (a servant of emperor Henry IV) was preparing for an attack on Croatia from his estates in Istria. The pope intervened on behalf of Zvonimir, under threat of excommunication, urging Vecelin to make any complaint to him directly regarding any issues with the king. The Annales Carinthiæ and Chronica Hungarorum record that Zvonimir eventually invaded Carinthia to aid Hungary in war between 1079 and 1083, but this is disputed. Demetrius Zvonimir also took a hard line against Byzantium. After Robert Guiscard the Duke of Apulia reconciled with the Pope, a military alliance was formed against the new Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Zvonimir, due to his pledge to the Holy See, sent naval troops to the aid of the Norman invasion in the 1080s. During these years, Zvonimir's vicar and deputy over Dalmatian cities was Pribimir.