Charles Edward Louis John Sylvester Maria Casimir Stuart (31 December 1720 – 30 January 1788) was the elder son of James Francis Edward Stuart, making him the grandson of James VII and II, and the Stuart claimant to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1766. He is also known as the Young Pretender, the Young Chevalier and Bonnie Prince Charlie, and to Jacobites as Charles III. He led the failed Jacobite Rising of 1745 in an attempt to restore the Stuart dynasty to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Born in Rome to the exiled Stuart court, he spent much of his early and later life in Italy. In 1744, he travelled to France to take part in a planned invasion of England to restore the Stuart monarchy under his father. When storms partly wrecked the French fleet, Charles resolved to proceed to Scotland following discussion with leading Jacobites. This resulted in Charles landing by ship on the west coast of Scotland, leading to the Jacobite rising of 1745. The Jacobite forces under Charles initially achieved several victories in the field, including the Battle of Prestonpans in September 1745 and the Battle of Falkirk Muir in January 1746. However, by April 1746, Charles was defeated at Culloden, effectively ending the Stuart cause. Although there were subsequent attempts, such as a planned French invasion in 1759, Charles was unable to restore the Stuart monarchy.
With the Jacobite cause lost, Charles spent the remainder of his life on the continent, except for one secret visit to London. On his return, Charles lived briefly in France before he was exiled in 1748 under the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Charles eventually returned to Italy, where he spent much of his later life living in Florence and Rome. He had a number of mistresses before marrying Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern in 1772. In his later life, Charles's health declined greatly, and he was said to be an alcoholic. However, his escapades during the 1745 and 1746 uprisings and his escape from Scotland led to his portrayal as a romantic figure of heroic failure. His life and the once possible prospects of a restored Stuart monarchy left an enduring historical legend that continued to have a legacy as of the late 20th century.
Childhood and education: 1720–1734
Charles was born on 31 December 1720 at the Palazzo Muti in Rome, Italy, where his father had been given a residence by Pope Clement XI. Historians differ as to who carried out his baptism ceremony. Kybett reports that it was presided over by Pope Clement, whereas Douglas and Pininski state it was carried out by the Bishop of Montefiascone. Regardless, he was given the names Charles for his great-grandfather, Edward after Edward the Confessor, Louis for the King of France, Casimir after the kings of Poland, and Sylvester as he was born on Saint Sylvester's Day.
Charles was the son of the Old Pretender, James Francis Edward Stuart (himself son of the exiled Stuart King James II and VII), and Maria Clementina Sobieska, a Polish noblewoman (the granddaughter of John III Sobieski). Charles's grandfather, James II of England and Ireland and VII of Scotland, ruled the kingdoms from 1685 to 1688. He was deposed when the English Parliament invited the Dutch Protestant William III and his wife, Princess Mary, King James's eldest daughter, to replace him in the Revolution of 1688. Many Protestants, including a number of prominent parliamentarians, had been worried that King James aimed to return England fully to the Catholic faith. Since the exile of James and the Act of Settlement, the "Jacobite Cause" had striven to return the Stuarts to the thrones of England and Scotland, which had been united in 1603 under James VI and I, with the parliaments joined by the Acts of Union in 1707 as the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Charles was said to have suffered from weak legs at an early age, possibly as a result of rickets. However, Charles was instructed in a regime of exercise and dancing to help improve his constitution, which strengthened his legs by later years. Charles spent much of his early childhood in Rome and Bologna in the company of a small retinue and a close but often argumentative family. His brother Henry Benedict Stuart was born 5 years later on 6 March 1725. His mother and father were regularly at disagreement with each other, primarily over James's choice of assigning Protestant tutors, leading to one notable incident in which Clementina left the palace shortly after Henry's birth in 1725 and moved to a convent, not returning until 1727. As the legitimate heir to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland—according to the Jacobite succession—James, along with his household, lived with a sense of pride, and staunchly believed in the divine right of kings. Charles spent much of his early years in the company of older men, several of whom acted as his tutors. Charles Edward's governor was the Protestant James Murray, Jacobite Earl of Dunbar. While the Pope had raised initial concerns over Charles's religious education under a Protestant governor, James agreed that Charles would be raised as a Catholic. Among his tutors were the Chevalier Ramsay, Sir Thomas Sheridan and Father Vinceguerra, a Catholic priest. He quickly became conversant in English, French and Italian, although it was said that he never fully mastered any language and was partially illiterate. During his childhood, he was reported to enjoy hunting, horsemanship, a form of golf, music and dancing.
In 1734, his cousin, the Duke of Liria, who was proceeding to join Don Carlos in his struggle for the crown of Naples, passed through Rome. He offered to take Charles on his expedition, and the boy of thirteen was appointed general of artillery by Don Carlos. On 30 July 1734, he departed Rome with an escort and proceeded with his cousin to the French and Spanish siege of Gaeta, his first exposure to war. While at Gaeta, he observed the final stages of the siege and was said to have come under fire in the trenches of the siegeworks. He returned to Rome in late 1734. In January 1735, shortly after his fourteenth birthday, Charles's mother Clementina died of scurvy. She had been in a poor state of declining health for many months; however, Charles was said to have been deeply distressed after her death.
As Charles grew older, he was introduced by his father and the Pope to Italian society. In 1737, James sent his son on a tour through major Italian cities to complete his education as a prince and man of the world. Charles proceeded to visit Genoa, Florence, Parma, Bologna and Venice. The Italian tour was a shock for Charles, who had believed he would be welcomed as a royal prince. Instead, most European courts would only receive him as the "Duke of Albany" (an historic title adopted by Scottish royals in the 14th century). Despite being Catholic, many European states wished to avoid antagonising Britain, the only exception being Venice.
By the time he had reached 20, he had become a notable member of upper-class society in Rome and had developed a fondness for alcohol and fine clothes, often in excess of his allowance. He had become increasingly distant from his brother due to Henry's devotion to prayer and religious study. His father continued to rely on foreign aid in his attempts to restore himself to the British and Irish thrones. However, Charles became increasingly supportive of the idea of rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind from abroad. On 23 December 1743, owing to his limited ability to travel to Britain, James named his son Charles prince regent, giving him the authority to act in his name.
In January 1744, his father believed he had managed to obtain the de facto renewed support of the French government. Following this mistaken belief, Charles Edward travelled covertly to France from Rome, initially under the guise of a hunting party. However, neither the French Government nor King Louis XV had officially invited Charles. Nevertheless, by February, the French government had agreed to support a planned invasion of England, hoping to remove British forces from the War of the Austrian Succession. Charles then travelled to Dunkirk with the purpose of accompanying a French Army across to England. The invasion never materialised, as the French fleet was scattered by a storm in the spring equinox, losing 11 ships. By the time it regrouped, the British fleet realised the diversion that had deceived them and resumed their position in the Channel.