Flavius Belisarius (Greek: Βελισάριος; c. 500 AD – March 565) was a military commander of the Byzantine Empire under Emperor Justinian I. Belisarius was instrumental in the reconquest of much of the Mediterranean territory belonging to the former Western Roman Empire, which had been lost less than a century prior. He is considered one of the greatest military commanders of Byzantium and in history generally.
One of the defining features of Belisarius's career was his success despite varying levels of available resources. He is frequently cited as being among the "Last of the Romans". He conquered the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa in the Vandalic War in nine months and conquered much of Italy during the Gothic War. He also defeated the Vandal armies in the battle of Ad Decimum and played an important role at Tricamarum, compelling the Vandal king, Gelimer, to surrender. During the Gothic War, despite being significantly outnumbered, he and his troops recaptured the city of Rome and then held out against great odds during the siege of Rome.
After a setback at Thannurin, he won a battle against the Persians at Dara but was defeated at Callinicum. He successfully repulsed a Hunnic incursion at Melantias. He was also known for military deception; he repulsed a Persian invasion by deceiving their commander and lifted the siege of Ariminum without a fight.
Belisarius was born around 500, probably in Germaneia (modern Sapareva Banya, Bulgaria), a fortified town of which some archaeological remains still exist, within the borders of Thrace and Paeonia. He may have been born into an Thraco-Roman or Illyro-Roman family, but his ancestry is unknown. By 526, he had become a senior-level guardsman of Justinian, the nephew of Emperor Justin I. How he became one is unrecorded.
He was later given permission by the emperor to form a bucellarii regiment. It consisted of elite heavy cavalry that he later expanded into a personal household regiment, 7,000 strong. Belisarius's guards formed the nucleus of all the armies he would later command. Armed with lances, (possibly Hunnish style) composite bows, and spatha (long sword), they were fully armoured to the standard of heavy cavalry of the day. A multi-purpose unit, these bucellarii were capable of shooting at a distance with bows, like the Huns, or act as heavy shock cavalry, charging an enemy with lance and sword.
In his early career, Belisarius participated in multiple Byzantine defeats. In the first battle where he held an independent command (together with Sittas, most likely a dual command), he suffered a clear defeat. However, he and Sittas were noted as successful raiders, plundering Persian territory in the first invasion of Persarmenia of the war shortly before. The next battle was fought at Tanurin (south of Nisbis), where Belisarius played a leading role again. He fled with his troops after his colleagues were lured into a trap. His army was then defeated at Mindouos, but he was promoted shortly afterward, meaning he was not likely held responsible for the defeat. At first, he was likely a junior partner to some higher commander like Sittas, while at Thanurin there was no overall commander. Mindouos was probably the first battle in which he led the army entirely on his own.
Following Justin's death in 527, the new emperor, Justinian I, appointed Belisarius to command a Roman army in the east, despite earlier defeats. In June/July 530, during the Iberian War, he led the Romans to a stunning victory over the Sassanids in the Battle of Dara. This victory caused the Persian king Kavad I to open peace negotiations with the Byzantines. At the battle, Belisarius had had trenches dug in order to direct the more mobile Sassanian force to a location where he could attack them from the rear, a strategem adopted from the Sasanians at Tanurin two years earlier.
On other fronts, the Byzantine forces were also winning. The Persians and their Arab allies, with a mobile force of 15,000 high-quality cavalry, invaded Byzantine lands again, now via Euphratensis, a route they had never taken before. Belisarius was taken by surprise and was unsure whether this was a feint or a real attack, so at first, he did not move. He called upon Roman-allied Arab tribes for help and received 5,000 troops. He forced the Persians to retreat with a successful strategic manoeuvre but he kept pursuing the fleeing Persians, reportedly because his soldiers threatened mutiny if no battle was fought. With 20,000 Byzantines and 5,000 Arabs, he moved against the Persians, but he was defeated at Callinicum (modern Raqqa), despite having a heavy numerical superiority, as the opposing commander, Azarethes, was a tactician as good as himself. Belisarius fled the field, probably long before the fighting was over. This setback cost Justinian a chance to sign an early peace treaty as the shah regained confidence in the war effort. While the war went on after Dara and Callinicum, the death of the Persian shah, Kavad I, soon led to a peace treaty. The new shah, Khosrow, saw Justinian was anxious to sign for peace and thought he could quickly reach a favourable peace, such as the so-called eternal peace which heavily favoured the Persians. Belisarius was recalled to Constantinople and charged with incompetence and responsibility for the defeats at Thannuris and Callinicum, but after an investigation, he was cleared of the charges.
In Constantinople, Justinian had been carrying out reforms of the empire. In this, he had been assisted by John the Cappadocian and Tribunianus, who were corrupt. The corruption of John and Tribunianus, the curbing of corruption of other influential figures, loss of influence and employment because of a decrease in funding for the civil service, Justinian's low birth, extremely high taxes, cruel methods of tax collection, the curbing of the power of the chariot racing factions, and the execution of rioters led to great anger among the population, culminating in the Nika riots of 532 AD. The riots were led by the chariot racing factions—the Blues and Greens. At the time the riots broke out, Belisarius was in Constantinople. Belisarius, Mundus—the magister militum per Illyricum—renowned as a great commander, and Narses, a eunuch and confidant of Justinian who would later also be known as a great commander, were called upon to suppress the revolt. At this point, much of the city had been burned by the rioters, but the blue faction began to calm down, and after Narses distributed gifts to them, many returned home, while others began spreading moderate views among the other rebels. Belisarius tried to enter the Hippodrome, where the rioters had gathered, through the emperor's box, but was blocked by its guards. Belisarius was surprised and informed Justinian, who ordered him to enter from another direction. Entering the Hippodrome, he wanted to arrest Hypatius, who had been declared emperor by the rioters. Hypatius was defended by guards whom Belisarius would first need to eliminate, but if he attacked, the rioters would be at his rear. Belisarius decided to deal with the rioters and, bypassing the door to Hypatius's location, charged into the crowd. Mundus, hearing the sound of battle, also charged, while Narses blocked the other exits in order to trap the rioters. The revolt thus ended in a massacre. At least 30,000 and up to 60,000 died, mostly unarmed civilians.
In 533, Belisarius began a campaign against the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. The Byzantines had political, religious, and strategic reasons for such a campaign. The Vandals, being Arians, had persecuted Nicene Christians, refused to mint coins with depictions of the emperor on them, and banished the Roman nobility, replacing them with a Germanic elite. The recent Byzantine emperors had spent much effort on reunifying pro-Chalcedonian and anti-Chalcedonian Christians and uniting the eastern and western parts of the church, so the prosecution of "good" Christians by Arian heretics was an especially important issue. The persecution had started after the Vandal military leader, Gelimer, who had a reputation as a good soldier, had overthrown his cousin, King Hilderic, a "guest friend" of Justinian, in 530. In a recent war against the native Berbers, the Vandals had lost 5,000 men in two decisive defeats; only when Gelimer was appointed commander did the tide shift. As king, Gelimer acquired a reputation for greed and cruelty and became unpopular with the people and nobility. Two revolts broke out at nearly exactly the same time, probably orchestrated by Justinian. With a large number of Vandals killed by the Berbers, and the Ostrogoths still angry because of the actions of Hilderic, the Vandals were perceived to be weak. Using the fact that Gelimer had defied him, and the pleas of African Catholics as justification, Justinian sent an invasion force.