Ahmad Shah Durrani (born Ahmad Khan Abdali; c. 1720–1722 – 16–23 October 1772) was the first ruler and founder of the Durrani Empire. He is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan. As Shah, he relentlessly led military campaigns for over 25 years across West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia, creating one of the largest Islamic empires in the world, encompassing Afghanistan, much of Pakistan, Iranian Khorasan, and parts of Northern India.
Born between 1720 and 1722, Ahmad Shah accompanied Nader Shah in his campaigns until Nader's assassination in 1747, which resulted in the division of the Afsharid Empire. Ahmad Shah took advantage and was crowned near Kandahar, establishing his rule in Afghanistan and founding the Durrani Empire.
In 1748, he invaded the Mughal Empire and began a series of invasions into India that would span the next 24 years. Following his third invasion of India, Ahmad Shah annexed Punjab and Kashmir from the Mughals. His forays continued, including the occupation and sacking of Delhi in 1757 during his fourth invasion, and the annihilation of Maratha armies at the Third Battle of Panipat, the largest battle of the 18th century, during his fifth. Outside of India, he campaigned in Khorasan and Afghan Turkestan, subjugating the Afsharids, crossed swords with the Khanate of Bukhara, and had diplomatic encounters with Qing China. In his later reign, he led numerous invasions against the Sikhs to maintain control over the Punjab. Years of nonstop campaigning took a toll on his health, and he died in 1772 in Maruf. He was buried in Kandahar, where his mausoleum is located.
Throughout his reign, Ahmad Shah fought over fifteen major military campaigns. Nine of them were centered in present-day India, three in Khorasan, and three in Afghan Turkestan. Having rarely lost a battle, historians widely recognize Ahmad Shah as a brilliant military leader and tactician, typically being compared to military leaders such as Marlborough, Mahmud of Ghazni, Babur, and Nader Shah. Ahmad Shah has been described as one of the greatest military leaders of eighteenth century Asia, as well the "greatest general of Asia of his time", and as one of the greatest conquerors in Asian history.
His campaigns, however, left India in complete chaos and contributed to the decline of Muslim power in Northern India, with Ahmad Shah overseeing several indiscriminate massacres throughout his campaigns as well as pillaging, and mass enslavement conducted by Afghan soldiers.
His birth name was Ahmad Khan, and he was born into the Abdali tribe of Pashtuns. After his accession to power in 1747, he became known as Ahmad Shah. His tribe also changed their name from Abdali to Durrani. Afghans often refer to him as Ahmad Shāh Bābā, meaning "Ahmad Shah the Father".
In historical sources, his tribe's name is interchangeably used between Abdali and Durrani, and he is commonly referred to by names including Ahmad Shah Abdali. Eventually, Ahmad Shah would forbid the usage of the old tribal name of Abdali, rather insisting on the usage of Durrani instead, an act likely done to ward off other rival Abdali claimants.
Ahmad Shah was born between 1720 and 1722, with sources differing on whether his birthplace was in Herat in present-day Afghanistan; or Multan in present-day Pakistan. Modern scholarship generally favours Multan as his birthplace. However, this is disputed by historian Sajjad Nejatie, who argues the majority of sources from Ahmad Shah's time state he was born in Herat and not in Multan, including the Tarikh-i Ahmad Shahi, a primary source commissioned by Ahmad Shah himself.
His father, Zaman Khan, was the Sultan of Herat. Zaman Khan had died in 1721, and as a result, Ahmad Shah was raised alongside his brother Zulfiqar Khan in Shindand and Farah. In the mid-1720s, Zulfiqar Khan was invited to rule Herat. Ahmad Shah does not appear in historical records again until 1731–1732, when Zulfiqar Khan was defeated by the Iranian monarch Nader Shah. This forced both Zulfiqar Khan and Ahmad Shah to flee to Kandahar, where they remained political prisoners of Hussain Hotak, the Hotak king.
After Nader Shah conquered Kandahar, Ahmad Shah and Zulfiqar Khan were freed. Ahmad Shah spent much of his early life in the service of Nader Shah. Accompanying him on his invasion of India between 1738 and 1739. Ahmad Shah was later resettled in Mazandaran along with his brother. According to the Encyclopædia Iranica, Ahmad Shah may have been appointed governor of Mazandaran. After the death of his brother, Ahmad Shah enlisted in the Afsharid military in 1742. Some sources suggest only Zulfiqar Khan went to Mazandaran, while Ahmad Shah remained in Nader Shah's service as an officer.
During Nader Shah's invasion of India, Ahmad Shah possibly commanded a regiment of Durrani tribesmen. His forces participated in the sacking of Delhi and were involved in massacres during the invasion. According to legend, Nizam ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of Hyderabad, supposedly an expert in physiognomy, predicted Ahmad Shah would become king. Nader Shah is said to have taken notice, clipping part of Ahmad Shah's ear as a symbolic gesture, reportedly saying: "When you become a king, this will remind you of me". Nader Shah also requested Ahmad Shah be generous with his descendants. Nejatie is sceptical of the account, and remarks that evidence of Ahmad Shah being fully involved in the campaign is inconclusive.
In 1744, Ahmad Shah was promoted to Nader Shah's personal staff. In a campaign against the Ottomans, Ahmad Shah distinguished himself and was permitted to raise a contingent of 3–4,000 Durrani tribesmen by Nader Shah. The unit became one of Nader Shah's most trusted units, and he increasingly relied on it to suppress the influence of his other commanders, whom he suspected of plotting a rebellion or his assassination.
In June 1747, Nader Shah was convinced his personal guard intended to assassinate him. As a result, he summoned Ahmad Shah and other loyal commanders. Nader Shah ordered Ahmad Shah to assemble his Durrani regiments and to arrest his personal guard. If the personal guard resisted, Ahmad Shah was given permission to kill them all. He was ordered to do this at first light. Nader Shah then chose to sleep with his favourite wife, but did so outside the royal tent, where the same guards he had accused of treachery presumed night duty. Meanwhile, Ahmad Shah with his regiments was stationed at the defences of the camp.
News of Nader Shah's plan leaked, with the conspirators being forced to act. Four conspirators entered the royal enclosure and Nader Shah's tent at Quchan, assassinating him. Chaos ensued afterward, and plans to cover up the killing by the conspirators failed. They resorted to pillaging the royal enclosure while news of Nader Shah's death rapidly spread. The next morning, the royal guard attacked Ahmad Shah's forces, who drove away the Persians and Qizilbash despite being heavily outnumbered. Ahmad Shah then entered the tent of Nader Shah, taking the Koh-i-Noor diamond and a signet ring from his body.
Having driven off the Persians and Qizilbash, Ahmad Shah departed for Kandahar with his regiments, and his Uzbek ally, Hajji Bi Ming. Ahmad Shah first resolved the dispute of leadership, asserting himself as the leader of Durrani tribesmen by forcing the former leader to step down. Ahmad Shah also killed 'Abd al-Ghani Khan, his uncle and the governor of Kandahar to consolidate full control over the Durrani regiments. Following this act, his forces grew to over 6,000 men.
Ahmad Shah then moved through Khabushan, advancing to Kashmar. On the way, Ahmad Shah accumulated supplies for his army before proceeding to Torbat-e Heydarieh, where he received news that Adel Shah had dispatched a force to block the Afghan advance. Ahmad Shah responded by leading his forces to Tun and then Farah, where they defeated Adel Shah's army. With Farah under his control, the Afghans continued on to Grishk, and then Kandahar.