Ōkubo Toshimichi (Japanese: 大久保 利通; 26 September 1830 – 14 May 1878) was a Japanese statesman and samurai of the Satsuma Domain. Regarded as one of the main founders of modern Japan, he was one of the "Three Great Nobles" who led the Meiji Restoration in 1868, alongside Kido Takayoshi and Saigō Takamori. His policies, often characterized by realism and a focus on national strength (fukoku kyōhei), has led some historians to compare his role in Japan to that of Otto von Bismarck in Prussia.
Beginning his career as a low-ranking retainer in Satsuma, Ōkubo became a central figure in the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate, and following the restoration of imperial rule became a prominent leader in the new Meiji government. As a junior councilor and later in key ministerial posts, he was a principal architect of the new state, driving reforms that dismantled the old feudal structure. His most significant achievement in this period was the abolition of the han system in 1871, which centralized the country under the Tokyo government.
Ōkubo served as a vice-ambassador on the Iwakura Mission (1871–1873), touring the United States and Europe. The experience reinforced his belief that Japan must prioritize internal modernization before engaging in foreign ventures. Following his return, he successfully opposed a proposed invasion of Korea (Seikanron) in October 1873, thereby leading to a political split with his former ally Takamori. Upon being named Home Minister in November 1873, Ōkubo consolidated power to become the dominant figure within the Meiji oligarchy. Ōkubo then focused on a state-led industrialization drive and suppressed several samurai uprisings that challenged the central government, including the Saga and Satsuma Rebellions.
In 1878, Ōkubo was assassinated by a group of disaffected samurai who accused him of tyranny. While controversial for his authoritarian methods, Ōkubo is remembered for his political shrewdness and unwavering vision. His leadership during the turbulent early Meiji period was instrumental in transforming Japan from a feudal country into a modern, industrialised nation-state.
Ōkubo Toshimichi was born on 26 September 1830, in Kajiyamachi, a section of the castle-town of Kagoshima in the Satsuma Domain. His father, Ōkubo Jūemon (also known as Toshio or Shirō), was a low-ranking samurai (koshōgumi, or bodyguard) of the Satsuma Domain, receiving less than 150 koku of rice annually, which kept the family in straitened circumstances until Jūemon obtained a minor position in the han government dealing with Ryukyuan affairs. Jūemon was a man of high spirits and unusual character, an egalitarian who associated widely with samurai, merchants, and peasants, and studied the philosophy of Oyōmei and Zen Buddhism. Ōkubo's maternal grandfather, Minayoshi Hōtoku, was a noted Satsuma physician who had studied Western technology and science, and was aware of Japan's maritime inadequacies.
As the only son in a family of seven, Ōkubo was reared in strict conformity with Satsuma samurai traditions. Between the ages of seven and fourteen, he attended the Gochū, a self-governing association for young boys in his district, peculiar to Kagoshima. These institutions guided young Satsuma lads in play, study, and military training, under the supervision of older youths (nisaishū). Activities at the Gochū were oriented toward fostering military courage and literary proficiency, including the practice of jūjutsu and reading Confucian classics, Japanese history, and literature. As the oldest son of a samurai, Ōkubo was also entitled to attend the Seidō (also known as Zōshikan), a han-operated educational institution. He undertook special training in military arts, studying jūjutsu under his uncle Minayoshi Kinroku and spear fighting under Umeda Kyūnojō, though his frail constitution prevented him from excelling.
To compensate for his physical limitations, Ōkubo concentrated on literary pursuits, becoming a voracious reader. He and his boyhood friend Saigō Takamori, who was three years his senior, studied Zen Buddhism and the Ōyōmei school of philosophy under teachers such as Itō Moemon and Musan Oshō. Zen, with its emphasis on direct intuitive perception and self-discipline, appealed to the samurai class. The Ōyōmei philosophy, which stressed introspection and rejected scriptural authority in favor of intuitive perception, also attracted many samurai intellectuals. At the age of sixteen, Ōkubo's literary accomplishments earned him a position as kakiyakujo (archivist's aide) in the Satsuma han's archives.
In 1849, Ōkubo's father, Jūemon, a loyalist and member of the reform party in the han, participated in a movement to oust reactionary advisers surrounding the daimyō Shimazu Narioki and to support Narioki's legitimate son, Shimazu Nariakira, as successor over the illegitimate Saburō (later Shimazu Hisamitsu). This "family conflict," known as the Takasaki Uprising or Oyura Sōdō, resulted in the capture and punishment of many reformers. Jūemon was exiled to Okinoerabujima. Ōkubo Toshimichi himself, accused of acting as a messenger between his father and other conspirators, was relieved of his position in the archives and placed under domiciliary arrest for six months. This period, from 1849 to 1853, was one of dire poverty for the Ōkubo family.
The fortunes of the Ōkubo family and the progressive faction in Satsuma improved when, in 1851, Shimazu Nariakira became the new head of the Satsuma han, following the forced resignation of Narioki. Nariakira was an active reformer interested in Western learning who initiated widespread reforms to improve the han's government and military defense, establishing an arsenal and a navy yard. His foreign policy was kaikoku-teki jōi (opening the country to gain strength, then expelling foreigners), aiming for fukoku kyōhei (rich country, strong defense) on a local scale.
Nariakira recognized Ōkubo's talents. In 1853, Ōkubo was pardoned and reassigned to the archives. His father returned from exile in 1855. In 1858, both Ōkubo and Saigō were advanced to the rank of kachi metsuke (inspector). Shortly thereafter, Ōkubo was made a kura yaku, responsible for managing tribute rice, a position Nariakira established to improve the Ōkubo family's finances.
Despite his gratitude to Nariakira, Ōkubo and other young radicals were dissatisfied with the lord's failure to dismiss conservative advisers like Shimazu Bungo. They planned to work through the Bakufu (Tokugawa military government) to remove these advisers, but Nariakira, prioritizing han stability and influenced by his reactionary father Narioki, opposed the move. Ōkubo, respecting Nariakira, checked his more reckless colleagues. Ōkubo shared Nariakira's kinnō (reverence for the emperor) views and his advocacy of kōbu gattai (union of court and Bakufu), which aimed to maintain the traditional political dualism but with greater emphasis on the emperor's role.
Nariakira's death in August 1858 was a significant setback for the progressives. Ōkubo and Saigō found themselves without employment. Saigō, depressed, attempted suicide with the monk Gesshō; Ōkubo, however, persuaded Saigō to abandon further such plans, demonstrating a persistent character. The adversities of this period are said to have transformed Ōkubo into a serious, determined, and calculating reformer.
Following Nariakira's death, Ōkubo and other Satsuma samurai resolved to take matters into their own hands, planning to leave the han as rōnin to attack the Kyoto Shoshidai, remove the kampaku Kujō, and assassinate Ii Naosuke, the Bakufu's chief minister, thereby forcing a complete reformation of the Bakufu. Saigō, then on his way to exile on Ōshima, advised immediate action. Ōkubo formed a party of loyalists, recommending Iwashita Hōhei as leader due to his higher social status. He secured financial backing from Moriyama Shinzō (Tōen), a Kagoshima gōshi (farmer-samurai) turned merchant.
However, the Satsuma daimyō Shimazu Tadayoshi, influenced by his father Hisamitsu, discouraged the radical move in November 1859, urging the group (which then called itself the Seichū Gumi or Loyal Party) to wait. Ōkubo, now leaning towards kōbu gattai with the court predominant over the Bakufu, advocated patience. His reluctance to act independently of the han, despite earlier radicalism, stemmed from factors including Ii Naosuke's power and a noted change in Hisamitsu's attitude, who began showing willingness to aid the loyalist cause. Ōkubo sought to win Hisamitsu's sympathy, employing subterfuge such as learning go from Jōgan, a priest and Hisamitsu's regular opponent, to gain access and convey his political views.